	NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI (1469-1527):	The father of modern political theory, Niccolo di Bernardo dei	Machiavelli, was born at Florence, May 3, 1469, saw the troubles of	the French invasion (1493), when the Medici fled, and in 1498 became	secretary of the Ten, a post he held until the fall of the republic	in 1512. He was employed in a great variety of missions, including	one to the Emperor Maximilian, and four to France. His dispatches	during these journeys, and his treatises on the Affairs of France	and Germany, are full of far-reaching insight. On the restoration of	the Medici, Machiavelli was involved in the downfall of his patron,	Gonfaloniere Soderini. Arrested on a charge of conspiracy in 1513,	and put to the torture, he disclaimed all knowledge of the alleged	conspiracy. Although pardoned, he was obliged to retire from public	life and devoted himself to literature.	It was not until 1519 that he was commissioned by Leo X to draw up	his report on a reform of the state of Florence. In 1521-25 he was	employed in diplomatic services and as historiographer. After the	defeat of the French at Pavia (1525), Italy was helpless before the	advancing forces of the Emperor Charles V and Machiavelli strove to	avert from Florence the invading army on its way to Rome. In May	1527 the Florentines again drove out the Medici and proclaimed the	republic -- but Machiavelli, bitterly disappointed that he was to be	allowed no part in the movement for liberty, and already in	declining health, died on June 22.	Through misrepresentation and misunderstanding his writings were	spoken of as almost diabolical, his most violent assailants being	the clergy. The first great edition of his works was not issued	until 1782. From that period his fame as the founder of political	science has steadily increased.	Besides his letters and state papers, Machiavelli's historical	writings comprise Florentine Histories, Discourses on the First	Decade of Titus Livius (commonly known as The Discourses -- read the	Preface to Book One), a Life of Castruccio Castrancani (unfinished)	and History of the Affairs of Lucca. His literary works comprise an	imitation of the Golden Ass of Apuleius, an essay on the Italian	language, the play Mandragola, and several minor compositions. He	also wrote Seven Books on the Art of War.	The greatest source of Machiavelli's reputation is, of course, The	Prince (1532). The main theme of this short book is that all means	may be resorted to for the establishment and preservation of	authority -- the end justifies the means -- and that the worst and	most treacherous acts of the ruler are justified by the wickedness	and treachery of the governed. The Prince was condemned by Pope	Clement VIII.